This Fertile Land Signs Symbols in the Early Arts in Iran and Iraq

Ancient Mesopotamian Urban center-land

This article is about the ancient urban center-state in Mesopotamia. For other uses, see Ur (disambiguation).

Ur

𒌶𒆠 URI5 KI , 𒋀𒀕𒆠 or 𒋀𒀊𒆠 Urim (Sumerian) 𒋀𒀕𒆠 Uru (Akkadian) أُوْر ʾūr (Standard arabic)
Ziggurat of Ur
Ur Shown inside Iraq Show map of Iraq Ur Ur (Most East) Testify map of Most East Ur Ur (West and Key Asia) Show map of West and Central Asia
Location	Tell el-Muqayyar, Dhi Qar Governorate, Iraq
Region	Mesopotamia, Centre East
Coordinates	30°57′42″N 46°06′18″Eastward  /  xxx.9616529°N 46.1051259°Due east  / thirty.9616529; 46.1051259 Coordinates: thirty°57′42″N 46°06′eighteen″Due east  /  thirty.9616529°Due north 46.1051259°E  / 30.9616529; 46.1051259
Type	Settlement
History
Founded	c. 3800 BC
Abandoned	afterward 500 BC
Periods	Ubaid period to Iron Age
Cultures	Sumerian
Site notes
Digging dates	1853–1854, 1922–1934
Archaeologists	John George Taylor, Charles Leonard Woolley
UNESCO Globe Heritage Site
Official proper name	Ur Archaeological City
Part of	Ahwar of Southern Republic of iraq
Criteria	Mixed: (iii)(v)(ix)(x)
Reference	1481-006
Inscription	2016 (40th Session)
Area	71 ha (0.27 sq mi)
Buffer zone	317 ha (ane.22 sq mi)

Ur (; Sumerian: Urim;^[one] Sumerian Cuneiform: 𒌶𒆠 URI₅ ^KI , 𒋀𒀕𒆠 URIM_two ^KI or 𒋀𒀊𒆠 URIM₅ ^KI ;^[2] Akkadian: 𒋀𒀕𒆠, romanized: Uru ;^[iii] Arabic: أُوْر, romanized: ʾūr ; Hebrew: אוּר, romanized: ʾūr ) was an important Sumerian city-land in ancient Mesopotamia, located at the site of modern "Tell el-Muqayyar" (Arabic: تل ٱلْمُقَيَّر) in south Iraq'south Dhi Qar Governorate.^[4] Although Ur was once a littoral metropolis most the mouth of the Euphrates on the Persian Gulf, the coastline has shifted and the metropolis is at present well inland, on the due south banking company of the Euphrates, 16 kilometres (9.nine miles) from Nasiriyah in modern-day Iraq.^[five] The city dates from the Ubaid catamenia circa 3800 BC, and is recorded in written history as a metropolis-country from the 26th century BC, its first recorded king being Mesannepada.

The urban center's patron deity was Nanna (in Akkadian, Sin), the Sumerian and Akkadian moon god, and the name of the city is in origin derived from the god'southward name, UNUG^KI, literally "the abode (UNUG) of Nanna".^[5] The site is marked by the partially restored ruins of the Ziggurat of Ur, which independent the shrine of Nanna, excavated in the 1930s. The temple was built in the 21st century BC (short chronology), during the reign of Ur-Nammu and was reconstructed in the 6th century BC past Nabonidus, the concluding king of Babylon. The ruins cover an surface area of 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) northwest to southeast by 800 metres (ii,600 ft) northeast to southwest and ascent up to about twenty metres (66 ft) above the present plain level.^[6]

Layout [edit]

Sumer and Elam c. 2350 BC. Ur is located close to the coastline near the mouth of the Euphrates.

The city, said to have been planned by Ur-Nammu, was obviously divided into neighbourhoods, with merchants living in one quarter, artisans in another. In that location were streets both wide and narrow, and open spaces for gatherings. Many structures for water resource management and overflowing command are in evidence. Houses were constructed from mudbricks and mud plaster. In major buildings, the masonry was strengthened with bitumen and reeds. For the well-nigh part, foundations are all that remain today. People were often buried (separately and lone; sometimes with jewellery, pots, and weapons) in chambers or shafts beneath the firm floors.^[seven]

The name 𒋀𒀊𒆠 URIM₅ ^KI for "Country of Ur" on a seal of Rex Ur-Nammu

Ur was surrounded past sloping ramparts 8 metres (26 feet) high and about 25 metres (82 feet) wide, bordered in some places past a brick wall. Elsewhere, buildings were integrated into the ramparts. The Euphrates River complemented these fortifications on the city'southward western side.^[seven]

Society and culture [edit]

Archaeological discoveries have shown unequivocally that Ur was a major Sumerian urban center on the Mesopotamian obviously. Especially the discovery of the Royal Tombs has confirmed its splendour. These tombs, which date to the Early Dynastic IIIa period (approximately in the 25th or 24th century BC), contained an immense treasure of luxury items made of precious metals and semi-precious stones imported from long distances (Ancient Islamic republic of iran, Afghanistan, Bharat, Asia Modest, the Levant and the Farsi Gulf).^[6] This wealth, unparalleled up to then, is a testimony of Ur's economical importance during the Early Statuary Age.^[8]

Archaeological study of the region has contributed greatly to our understanding of the landscape and long-altitude interactions during these aboriginal times. Ur was a major port on the Persian Gulf, which extended much farther inland than today, and the city controlled much of the merchandise into Mesopotamia. Imports to Ur came from many parts of the earth: precious metals such as gilt and silver, and semi-precious stones, namely lapis lazuli and carnelian.^[7]

Information technology is thought that Ur had a stratified social organization including slaves (captured foreigners), farmers, artisans, doctors, scribes, and priests. High-ranking priests plain enjoyed bang-up luxury and splendid mansions. Tens of thousands of cuneiform texts accept been recovered from temples, the palace, and individual houses, recording contracts, inventories, and courtroom documents, evidence of the city's complex economical and legal systems.^[7]

Music [edit]

Enthroned Rex Ur-Nammu (c. 2047–2030 BC)

Excavation in the old city of Ur in 1929 revealed lyres, instruments like to the modern harp but in the shape of a bull and with 11 strings.^[9]

The Standard of Ur mosaic, from the royal tombs of Ur, is fabricated of red limestone, bitumen, lapis lazuli, and trounce. The "peace" side shows comfort, music, and prosperity.The "war" side of the Standard of Ur shows the rex, his armies, and chariots trampling on enemies.

History [edit]

Prehistory [edit]

When Ur was founded, the Western farsi Gulf's water level was two-and-a-half metres college than today. Ur is therefore thought to have had marshy surroundings; irrigation would have been unnecessary, and the city's evident canal system was likely used for transportation. Fish, birds, tubers, and reeds might accept supported Ur economically without the need for an agricultural revolution sometimes hypothesized equally a prerequisite to urbanization.^{[x] [xi]}

Archaeologists have discovered the evidence of an early on occupation at Ur during the Ubaid catamenia (c. 6500 to 3800 BC). These early levels were sealed off with a sterile deposit of soil that was interpreted by excavators of the 1920s as evidence for the Great Flood of the Book of Genesis and Ballsy of Gilgamesh. It is now understood that the Southward Mesopotamian apparently was exposed to regular floods from the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers, with heavy erosion from water and wind, which may have given ascension to the Mesopotamian and derivative Biblical Great Flood stories.^{[12] [thirteen]}

Sumerian occupation of the 4th millennium [edit]

The further occupation of Ur becomes clear only during its emergence in the 3rd millennium BC (although it must already have been a growing urban center during the fourth millennium). Every bit other Sumerians, the new settlers of Ur were a non-Semitic people who may have come from the due east circa 3300 BC, and spoke a language isolate.^{[fourteen] [fifteen]} The third millennium BC is by and large described as the Early Bronze Age of Mesopotamia, which ends approximately afterward the demise of the Third Dynasty of Ur in the 21st century BC.

3rd millennium BC (Early Bronze Age) [edit]

There are various main sources informing scholars about the importance of Ur during the Early Statuary Age. The Showtime Dynasty of Ur seems to have had neat wealth and power, as shown past the lavish remains of the Royal Cemetery at Ur. The Sumerian King List provides a tentative political history of aboriginal Sumer and mentions, among others, several rulers of Ur. Mesannepada is the first king mentioned in the Sumerian King Listing, and appears to accept lived in the 26th century BC. That Ur was an important urban centre already so seems to exist indicated by a type of cylinder seal called the City Seals. These seals contain a prepare of proto-cuneiform signs which appear to exist writings or symbols of the name of metropolis-states in ancient Mesopotamia. Many of these seals have been found in Ur, and the name of Ur is prominent on them.^[sixteen] Ur came under the control of the Semitic-speaking Akkadian Empire founded past Sargon the Bang-up betwixt the 24th and 22nd centuries BC. This was a menses when the Semitic-speaking Akkadians, who had entered Mesopotamia in approximately 3000 BC, gained ascendancy over the Sumerians, and indeed much of the ancient Most East.

• 

  Empire of the Tertiary Dynasty of Ur. West is at tiptop, north at right.

• 

  Gilded helmet of King of Ur I Meskalamdug, c. 2600–2500 BC

• 

  Mesopotamian female person deity seated on a chair, Onetime-Babylonian fired clay plaque from Ur

Ur III [edit]

After a short period of chaos following the autumn of the Akkadian Empire the third Ur dynasty was established when the rex Ur-Nammu came to ability, ruling betwixt c. 2047 BC and 2030 BC. During his rule, temples, including the Ziggurat of Ur, were congenital, and agronomics was improved through irrigation. His code of laws, the Code of Ur-Nammu (a fragment was identified in Istanbul in 1952) is ane of the oldest such documents known, preceding the Code of Hammurabi by 300 years. He and his successor Shulgi were both deified during their reigns, and afterwards his death he continued equally a hero-figure: one of the surviving works of Sumerian literature describes the expiry of Ur-Nammu and his journey to the underworld.^[17]

Ur-Nammu was succeeded by Shulgi, the greatest king of the Tertiary Dynasty of Ur, who solidified the hegemony of Ur and reformed the empire into a highly centralized bureaucratic state. Shulgi ruled for a long fourth dimension (at least 42 years) and deified himself halfway through his rule.^[eighteen]

The Ur empire connected through the reigns of three more kings with Semitic Akkadian names,^[12] Amar-Sin, Shu-Sin, and Ibbi-Sin. It fell around 1940 BC to the Elamites in the 24th regnal year of Ibbi-Sin, an effect commemorated past the Lament for Ur.^{[nineteen] [20]}

According to one estimate, Ur was the largest metropolis in the world from c. 2030 to 1980 BC. Its population was approximately 65,000 (or 0.1 per cent share of global population and so).^[21]

Later on Statuary Age [edit]

The city of Ur lost its political ability after the demise of the Third Dynasty of Ur. However, its important position which kept on providing admission to the Persian Gulf ensured the ongoing economical importance of the city during the second millennium BC. The splendour of the urban center, the might of the empire, the greatness of rex Shulgi, and undoubtedly the efficient propaganda of the land endured throughout Mesopotamian history. Shulgi was a well known historical figure for at least another two grand years, while historical narratives of the Mesopotamian societies of Assyria and Babylonia kept names, events, and mythologies in remembrance. The urban center came to exist ruled by the first dynasty (Amorite) of Babylonia which rose to prominence in southern Mesopotamia in the 18th century BC. Afterwards the fall of Hammurabi'due south short lived Babylonian Empire, information technology later on became a office of the native Akkadian ruled Sealand Dynasty for over 270 years, and was reconquered into Babylonia by the successors of the Amorites, the Kassites in the 16th century BC. During the Kassite Dynastic period Ur, forth with the rest of Babylonia, came nether sporadic command of the Elamites and the Middle Assyrian Empire, the latter of which straddled the Belatedly Bronze Age and Early Iron Age periods betwixt the early 14th century BC and mid 11th century BC.^{[ citation needed ]}

Fe Historic period [edit]

The city, forth with the rest of southern Mesopotamia and much of the Near Due east, Asia Minor, Due north Africa and southern Caucasus, savage to the northward Mesopotamian Neo-Assyrian Empire from the 10th to late 7th centuries BC. From the terminate of the 7th century BC Ur was ruled by the so-called Chaldean Dynasty of Babylon. In the 6th century BC there was new construction in Ur under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. The concluding Babylonian rex, Nabonidus (who was Assyrian-born and not a Chaldean), improved the ziggurat. However, the metropolis started to decline from around 530 BC subsequently Babylonia fell to the Persian Achaemenid Empire, and was no longer inhabited by the early on 5th century BC.^[12] The demise of Ur was perhaps attributable to drought, changing river patterns, and the silting of the outlet to the Farsi Gulf.

Identification with the Biblical Ur [edit]

"Abraham'south House" in Ur, photographed in 2016

Ur is mayhap the city of Ur Kasdim mentioned in the Book of Genesis as the birthplace of the Jewish, Christian and Muslim patriarch Abraham (Ibrahim in Arabic), traditionally believed to have lived some time in the 2nd millennium BC.^{[22] [23] [24]} There are however conflicting traditions and scholarly opinions identifying Ur Kasdim with the sites of Şanlıurfa, Urkesh, Urartu or Kutha.

The biblical Ur is mentioned four times in the Torah or Old Testament, with the distinction "of the Kasdim/Kasdin"—traditionally rendered in English every bit "Ur of the Chaldees". The Chaldeans had settled in the vicinity by effectually 850 BC, simply were non extant anywhere in Mesopotamia during the 2nd millennium BC period when Abraham is traditionally held to have lived. The Chaldean dynasty did not rule Babylonia (and thus go the rulers of Ur) until the late 7th century BC, and held ability but until the mid sixth century BC. The name is found in Genesis 11:28,^[25] Genesis 11:31,^[26] and Genesis 15:7.^[27] In Nehemiah ix:7, a single passage mentioning Ur is a paraphrase of Genesis. ^[28]

Archeology [edit]

Bitumen "mortar" among Ur's mudbricks

Round groups of bricks excavated in 1900

In 1625, the site was visited by Pietro Della Valle, who recorded the presence of ancient bricks stamped with strange symbols, cemented together with bitumen, as well as inscribed pieces of blackness marble that appeared to be seals. European archaeologists did non identify Tell el-Muqayyar as the site of Ur until Henry Rawlinson successfully deciphered some bricks from that location, brought to England by William Loftus in 1849.^[29]

The site was first excavated in 1853 and 1854, on behalf of the British Museum and with instructions from the Foreign Office, by John George Taylor, British vice consul at Basra from 1851 to 1859.^{[30] [31] [32]} Taylor uncovered the Ziggurat of Ur and a structure with an arch afterwards identified equally function of the "Gate of Judgment".^[33]

In the four corners of the ziggurat's top stage, Taylor constitute clay cylinders bearing an inscription of Nabonidus (Nabuna`id), the last king of Babylon (539 BC), closing with a prayer for his son Belshar-uzur (Bel-ŝarra-Uzur), the Belshazzar of the Book of Daniel. Bear witness was found of prior restorations of the ziggurat by Ishme-Dagan of Isin and Shu-Sin of Ur, and past Kurigalzu, a Kassite rex of Babylon in the 14th century BC. Nebuchadnezzar also claims to have rebuilt the temple.^[34]

Taylor farther excavated an interesting Babylonian building, not far from the temple, part of an aboriginal Babylonian necropolis. All about the city he found abundant remains of burials of later periods. Manifestly, in later times, owing to its sanctity, Ur became a favorite place of sepulchres, and so that even later it had ceased to exist inhabited, information technology continued to be used as a necropolis.^[34] Typical of the era, his excavations destroyed information and exposed the tell. Natives used the now loosened, 4,000-year-one-time bricks and tile for construction for the side by side 75 years, while the site lay unexplored,^[35] the British Museum having decided to prioritize archæology in Assyria.^[33]

After Taylor'south time, the site was visited by numerous travellers, virtually all of whom have found ancient Babylonian remains, inscribed stones and the similar, lying upon the surface.^[34] The site was considered rich in remains, and relatively easy to explore. After some soundings were made in 1918 by Reginald Campbell Thompson, H. R. Hall worked the site for 1 season for the British Museum in 1919, laying the groundwork for more extensive efforts to follow.^{[36] [37]}

Aerial photograph of Ur in 1927

Excavations from 1922 to 1934 were funded by the British Museum and the University of Pennsylvania and led past the archaeologist Sir Charles Leonard Woolley.^{[38] [35] [39]} A total of about 1,850 burials were uncovered, including xvi that were described equally "royal tombs" containing many valuable artifacts, including the Standard of Ur. Most of the royal tombs were dated to about 2600 BC. The finds included the unlooted tomb of a queen thought to be Queen Puabi^[xl]—the name is known from a cylinder seal constitute in the tomb, although there were 2 other different and unnamed seals plant in the tomb. Many other people had been buried with her, in a form of human being cede.^[41] Near the ziggurat were uncovered the temple Due east-nun-mah and buildings E-dub-lal-mah (built for a rex), East-gi-par (residence of the high priestess) and Due east-hur-sag (a temple edifice). Outside the temple area, many houses used in everyday life were establish. Excavations were likewise made below the majestic tombs layer: a 3.5-metre-thick (xi ft) layer of alluvial clay covered the remains of before habitation, including pottery from the Ubaid period, the first stage of settlement in southern Mesopotamia. Woolley subsequently wrote many articles and books about the discoveries.^[42] I of Woolley'south assistants on the site was the archaeologist Max Mallowan.

The discoveries at the site reached the headlines in mainstream media in the world with the discoveries of the Regal Tombs. Every bit a result, the ruins of the ancient city attracted many visitors. One of these visitors was the already famous Agatha Christie, who as a issue of this visit ended upwardly marrying Max Mallowan.^{[43] [44]} During this time the site was attainable from the Baghdad–Basra railway, from a stop called "Ur Junction".^[45]

In 2009, an agreement was reached for a joint Academy of Pennsylvania and Iraqi team to resume archaeological piece of work at the site of Ur.^[46] Excavations began in 2015 under the direction of Elizabeth C Stone and Paul Zimansky of the State University of New York. The showtime digging season was primarily to re-excavate Woolley's piece of work in an Old Babylonian housing area with 2 new trenches for confirmation. Among other finds a cylinder seal, a cuneform tablet, and residual pan weights were establish. A similar though smaller dig was made in a Neo-Babylonian housing area. ^[47]

The Royal Tomb Digging [edit]

When the Regal Tombs at Ur were first discovered, they had no idea how big they were. They started by earthworks two trenches in the middle of the desert to see if they could find anything that would allow them to proceed excavation. They originally split into 2 teams. Team A and team B. Both teams spent the starting time few months digging a trench and had found evidence of burying grounds by collecting small pieces of gilded jewelry and pottery. This was called at the time the "gold trench". At this time, the first season of digging had come to a close, and Woolley returned to England. In Autumn, Woolley returned and continued to dig into the second season. Past the end of the second flavor, he had uncovered a courtyard surrounded by many rooms.^[48] In their 3rd season of earthworks they had uncovered their biggest discover yet, a building that was believed to have been congenital by the orders of the king, and the second building to exist where the high priestess lived. As the fourth and fifth flavour came to a close, they had discovered so many items that most of their time was now spent recording the objects they institute instead of actually excavation objects.^[49] They had establish many items from gilt jewelry to clay pots and stones. Ane of the near pregnant objects that was discovered was the Standard of Ur. At the end of their sixth season they had excavated 1850 burials and accounted 17 of them to be "Royal Tombs".^[50] A number of clay sealings and cuneiform tablet fragment were found in an underlying layer.^[51]

Woolley finished his work excavating the Royal Tombs in 1934, uncovering a series of burials. Many servants were killed and buried with the royals, who he believed went to their deaths willingly. Computerized tomography scans on some of the surviving skulls have showed signs that they were killed by blows to the caput that could be from the spiked end of a copper axe, which showed Woolley's initial theory of mass suicide via poison to exist wrong.^[52]

Inside Puabi's tomb there was a chest in the middle of the room. Underneath that chest was a pigsty in the footing that led to what was called the "King'southward Grave": PG-789. It was believed to exist the king'south grave because information technology was buried next to the queen. In this grave, at that place were 63 attendants who were all equipped with copper helmets and swords. It is thought to be his army cached with him. Another large room was uncovered, PG-1237, called the "Great expiry pit".^[53] This big room had 74 bodies, 68 of which were women. There were only two artifacts in the tomb, both of which were Lyres.^{[ citation needed ]}

Reconstructed Sumerian headgear and necklaces found in the tomb of Puabi in the "Purple tombs" of Ur.

Most of the treasures excavated at Ur are in the British Museum, the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology and the Baghdad Museum. At the Penn Museum the exhibition "Iraq's Ancient Past",^[54] which includes many of the nigh famous pieces from the Royal Tombs, opened to visitors in tardily Bound 2011. Previously, the Penn Museum had sent many of its best pieces from Ur on tour in an exhibition chosen "Treasures From the Royal Tombs of Ur." It traveled to eight American museums, including those in Cleveland, Washington and Dallas, catastrophe the tour at the Detroit Establish of Art in May 2011.^{[ citation needed ]}

Archaeological remains [edit]

Though some of the areas that were cleared during modern excavations have sanded over once again, the Dandy Ziggurat is fully cleared and stands as the all-time-preserved and most visible landmark at the site.^[55] The famous Royal tombs, as well called the Neo-Sumerian Mausolea, located most 250 metres (820 ft) south-eastward of the Great Ziggurat in the corner of the wall that surrounds the city, are nearly totally cleared. Parts of the tomb surface area announced to be in need of structural consolidation or stabilization.^{[ commendation needed ]}

In that location are cuneiform (Sumerian writing) on many walls, some entirely covered in script stamped into the mud-bricks. The text is sometimes difficult to read, but information technology covers virtually surfaces. Modern graffiti has also establish its mode to the graves, usually in the form of names made with coloured pens (sometimes they are carved). The Great Ziggurat itself has far more than graffiti, mostly lightly carved into the bricks. The graves are completely empty. A small number of the tombs are accessible. Most of them have been cordoned off. The whole site is covered with pottery debris, to the extent that it is nearly incommunicable to set foot anywhere without stepping on some. Some have colours and paintings on them. Some of the "mountains" of broken pottery are debris that has been removed from excavations. Pottery debris and human remains form many of the walls of the royal tombs surface area. In May 2009, the United States Ground forces returned the Ur site to the Iraqi authorities, who hope to develop it as a tourist destination.^[56]

Preservation [edit]

Since 2009, the non-profit arrangement Global Heritage Fund (GHF) has been working to protect and preserve Ur against the problems of erosion, neglect, inappropriate restoration, war and conflict. GHF'due south stated goal for the projection is to create an informed and scientifically grounded Master Programme to guide the long-term conservation and management of the site, and to serve as a model for the stewardship of other sites.^[57]

Since 2013, the institution for Development Cooperation of the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs DGCS^[58] and the SBAH, the State Lath of Antiquities and Heritage of the Iraqi Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, have started a cooperation projection for "The Conservation and Maintenance of Archaeological site of UR". In the framework of this cooperation agreement, the executive programme, with detailed drawings, is in progress for the maintenance of the Dublamah Temple (design concluded, works starting), the Royal Tombs—Mausolea 3rd Dynasty (in progress)—and the Ziqqurat (in progress). The first updated survey in 2013 has produced a new aerial map derived by the flight of a UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) operated in March 2014. This is the first high-resolution map, derived from more than 100 aerial photograms, with an accuracy of 20 cm or less. A preview of the ORTHO-PHOTOMAP of Archaeological Site of UR is available online.^[59]

Tal Abu Tbeirah [edit]

Since 2012, a joint squad of Italian and Iraqi archaeologists led by Franco D'Agostino have been excavating at Tal Abu Tbeirah, located 15 kilometers east of Ur and 7 kilometers south of Nasariyah (30° 98′ 43.93′′ Eastward, 46° 26′ 97.35′′ N).^{[60] [61] [62] [63]} The site, near 45 hectares in area, appears to have been a harbor and trading centre associated with Ur in the afterward half of the 3rd Millennium BC.^[64] Among the finds was a big perforated potter's wheel and 2 bricks inscribed with the proper noun of Ur III rex Amar-Sin.^[65]

See also [edit]

• Correspondence of the Kings of Ur
• History of Iraq
• History of Sumer
• List of cities of the ancient Most Eastward
• Lyres of Ur
• Ram in a Thicket
• Royal Game of Ur
• Curt chronology

References [edit]

Notes:

1. ^ Due south. N. Kramer (1963). The Sumerians, Their History, Culture, and Character. Academy of Chicago Printing, pages 28 and 298.
2. ^ Literal transliteration: Urim₂ = ŠEŠ. ABgunu = ŠEŠ.UNUG (𒋀𒀕) and Urim₅ = ŠEŠ.AB (𒋀𒀊), where ŠEŠ=URI₃ (The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature.)
3. ^ The Cambridge Aboriginal History: Prolegomena & Prehistory. Vol. 1, Part 1. p. 149. Accessed 15 Dec 2010.
4. ^ Tell el-Muqayyar in Arabic Tell means "mound" or "hill" and Muqayyar means "built of bitumen." Muqayyar is variously transcribed as Mugheir, Mughair, Moghair, etc.
5. ^ ^{a b} Erich Ebeling, Bruno Meissner, Dietz Otto Edzard (1997). Meek – Mythologie. Reallexikon der Assyriologie. (in German) p. 360 (of 589 pages). ISBN 978-3-eleven-014809-i.
6. ^ ^{a b} Zettler, R. L.; Horne, Fifty., eds. (1998), Treasures from the Imperial Tombs of Ur, University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archeology and Anthropology
7. ^ ^{a b c d} Joan Goodnick Westenholz (1996), "Ur – Upper-case letter of Sumer", Royal Cities of the Biblical Earth, Jerusalem: Bible Lands Museum, ISBN965-7027-01-2
8. ^ Aruz, J., ed. (2003), Fine art of the First Cities. The 3rd Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus, New York, the U.S.A.: The Metropolitan Museum of Art
9. ^ Galpin, F. West. (1929). "The Sumerian Harp of Ur, c. 3500 B. C." Music & Messages. Oxford University Press. 10 (2): 108–123. ISSN 0027-4224. Retrieved 25 Feb 2022.
10. ^ Jennifer R. Pournelle, "KLM to CORONA: A Bird's Eye View of Cultural Environmental and Early Mesopotamian Urbanization"; in Settlement and Society: Essays Defended to Robert McCormick Adams ed. Elizabeth C. Stone; Cotsen Institute of Archeology, UCLA, and Oriental Plant of the Academy of Chicago, 2007.
11. ^ Crawford 2015, p. five.
12. ^ ^{a b c} Georges Roux – Aboriginal Iraq
13. ^ "Secrets of Noah's Ark - Transcript". Nova. PBS. seven Oct 2015. Retrieved 27 May 2019.
14. ^ "The Sumerians, a non-Semitic people who maybe came from the east" in Curtis, Adrian (2009). Oxford Bible Atlas. Oxford Academy Printing. p. 16. ISBN9780191623325. . Mention of Gen xi:2 "And every bit people migrated from the east, they found a plain in the land of Shinar and settled there." (English language Standard Version)
15. ^ Bromiley, Geoffrey Due west. (1979). The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 392. ISBN9780802837813.
16. ^ Matthews, R.J. (1993). Cities, Seals and Writing: Archaic Seal Impressions from Jemdet Nasr and Ur, Berlin.
17. ^ Amélie Kuhrt (1995). The Ancient Near E: C.3000-330 B.C. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16762-0.
18. ^ Potts, D. T. (1999). The Archaeology of Elam. Cambridge, Britain: Cambridge University Press. p. 132. ISBN0-521-56496-4 . Retrieved 16 May 2015.
19. ^ Ur Iii Period (2112–2004 BC) past Douglas Frayne, University of Toronto Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8020-4198-1
20. ^ Dahl, Jacob Lebovitch (2003). The ruling family unit of Ur III Umma. A Prosopographical Analysis of an Aristocracy Family unit in Southern Iraq 4000 Years ago (PDF). UCLA dissertation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-05-12.
21. ^ "What Were the Largest Cities Throughout History?". Geography.nearly.com . Retrieved 11 August 2017.
22. ^ Salaheddin, Sinan (April iv, 2013). "Dwelling of Abraham, Ur, unearthed by archaeologists in Republic of iraq". The Christian Science Monitor . Retrieved July 15, 2017.
23. ^ McLerran, Dan (June 23, 2011). "Birthplace of Abraham Gets a New Lease on Life". Popular Archaeology. iii . Retrieved July xv, 2017.
24. ^ "Journey of Faith". National Geographic Magazine. May xv, 2012. Retrieved July 15, 2017.
25. ^ Genesis eleven:28
26. ^ Genesis eleven:31
27. ^ Genesis 15:vii
28. ^ Nehemiah 9:7
29. ^ Crawford 2015, p. 3.
30. ^ J.E. Taylor, "Notes on the Ruins of Muqeyer", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Gild of Neat U.k. and Ireland, vol. fifteen, pp. 260–276, 1855.
31. ^ JE Taylor, "Notes on Abu Shahrein and Tel-el-Lahm", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Lodge of Great Britain and Republic of ireland, vol. 15, pp. 404–415, 1855. [In the relevant publications he is erroneously listed as J. Eastward. Taylor].
32. ^ Eastward. Sollberger, "Mr. Taylor in Chaldaea", Anatolian Studies, vol. 22, pp. 129–139, 1972.
33. ^ ^{a b} Crawford 2015, p. 4.
34. ^ ^{a b c} Peters, John Punnett (1911). "Ur". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 783–784.
35. ^ ^{a b} Leonard Woolley, Excavations at Ur: A Record of Twelve Years' Piece of work, Apollo, 1965, ISBN 0-8152-0110-9.
36. ^ H. R. Hall, "The Excavations of 1919 at Ur, el-'Obeid, and Eridu, and the History of Early Babylonia", Homo, Regal Anthropological Institute of Dandy United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland and Republic of ireland, Vol. 25, pp. 1–7, 1925.
37. ^ H. R. Hall, "Ur and Eridu: The British Museum Excavations of 1919", Journal of Egyptian Archæology, vol. 9, no. iii/4, pp. 177–195, 1923.
38. ^ Leonard Woolley, Ur: The Commencement Phases, Penguin, 1946.
39. ^ Leonard Woolley and P. R. S. Moorey, Ur of the Chaldees: A Revised and Updated Edition of Sir Leonard Woolley'south Excavations at Ur, Cornell Academy Printing, 1982, ISBN 0-8014-1518-7.
40. ^ Queen Puabi is also written Pu-Abi and formerly transcribed as Shub-ab.
41. ^ Zimmerman, Paul C. (2021). Two Tombs or Three? PG 789 and PG 800 Again! (PDF). Studies in Ancient Oriental Culture 71. Chicago: The Oriental Institute. pp. 283–296. ISBN978-1-61491-063-3.
42. ^ Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black; Larry S. Krieger; Phillip C. Naylor; Dahia Ibo Shabaka (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction . Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN0-395-87274-X.
43. ^ Brunsdale, Mitzi M. (26 July 2010). Icons of Mystery and Criminal offence Detection: From Sleuths to Superheroes [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 143. ISBN978-0-313-34531-ix . Retrieved 25 February 2022.
44. ^ "The World This Weekend - Sir Max Mallowan". BBC Annal . Retrieved 25 Feb 2022.
45. ^ Crawford 2015. p. 5. "Information technology used to be close to the Basra to Baghdad railway, part of the proposed Berlin to Basra line that was never completed. Information technology was possible to get off the train from Baghdad at the grandly named Ur Junction, where a co-operative line turned off to Nasariyah, and bulldoze a mere two miles beyond the desert to the site itself, merely the station was closed sometime after the 2d World War, leaving a long, hot journey in a 4-wheeled vehicle every bit the just option."
46. ^ Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty – Free Media in Unfree Societies U.S. Archaeologists To Excavate In Iraq
47. ^ Stone, Elizabeth C; Zimansky, Paul, Archæology Returns to Ur: A New Dialog with Old Houses, Near Eastern Archeology; Chicago, vol. 79, iss. 4, pp. 246-259 Dec 2016
48. ^ "The Purple Tombs of Ur – Story". Mesopotamia.co.uk . Retrieved 2016-12-04 .
49. ^ Hauptmann, Andreas, Klein, Sabine, Paoletti, Paola, Zettler, Richard L. and Jansen, Moritz. "Types of Aureate, Types of Silver: The Composition of Precious Metal Artifacts Establish in the Majestic Tombs of Ur, Mesopotamia" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 108, no. 1, 2018, pp. 100-131
50. ^ Royal Tombs
51. ^ Benati, Giacomo and Lecompte, Camille. "From Field Cards to Cuneiform Archives: Ii Inscribed Artifacts from Primitive Ur and Their Archaeological Context" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 106, no. 1, 2016, pp. ane-15
52. ^ McCorriston Joy, Field Julie (2019). World Prehistory and the Anthropocene An Introduction to Human being History. New York: Thames & Hudson Inc. pp. 286–287. ISBN978-0-500-843185.
53. ^ Great death pit
54. ^ "Iraq's Ancient Past: Rediscovering Ur'south Royal Cemetery". Penn.museum . Retrieved eleven August 2017.
55. ^ "Soldiers visit historical ruins of Ur", Nov xviii, 2009, by 13th Sustainment Command Expeditionary Public Diplomacy, web: Army-595.
56. ^ "US returns Ur, birthplace of Abraham, to Iraq". AFP. 2009-05-xiv. Retrieved 2009-09-12 .
57. ^ Ur perservation project at the Global Heritage Fund
58. ^ Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs DGCS Ur funding
59. ^ UAV aerial Ur Photo
60. ^ Franco D'Agostino et al, ABU TBEIRAH. PRELIMINARY Written report OF THE FIRST Campaign (Jan-MARCH 2012), Rivista degli studi orientali, Nuova Serie, vol. 84, Fasc. i/4, pp. 17–34, 2011
61. ^ Franco D'Agostino et al, Abu Tbeirah. Preliminary written report of the 2d campaign (October–December 2012), Rivista degli studi orientali, vol. 86(1), pp. 69–91, 2013
62. ^ Franco D'Agostino et al, Abu Theirah, Nasiriyah (Southern Iraq): Preliminary written report on the 2013 excavation campaign, ISIMU 13, pp. 209–221, 2011
63. ^ Licia Romano and Franco D'Agostino, Abu Tbeirah Excavations I. Area 1: Concluding Phase and Edifice A – Phase 1, Sapienza Università Editrice, Jun seven, 2019 ISBN 9788893771085 [1]
64. ^ Archaeologists Glance Into Fox Couch in Iraq, Detect 4,000-year-sometime Sumerian Port
65. ^ Romano, Licia. "A Fragment of a Potter's Wheel from Abu Tbeirah" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 105, no. 2, 2015, pp. 220-234.

Bibliography:

• Black, J. and Spada, G., "Texts from Ur: Kept in the Iraq Museum and the British Museum.", Nisaba 19, Messina: Dipartimento di Scienze dell'Antichitá 2008
• Crawford, Harriet. Ur: The City of the Moon God. London: Bloomsbury, 2015. ISBN 978-1-47252-419-5
• D'Agostino, F., Pomponio, F., and Laurito, R., "Neo-Sumerian Texts from Ur in the British Museum.", Nisaba 5, Messina: Dipartimento di Scienze dell'Antichitá, 2004
• Grant Frame, Joshua Jeffers and Holly Pittman ed., "Ur in the Xx-First Century CE", "Proceedings of the 62nd Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale at Philadelphia, July 11–15, 2016", Penn State University Press, 2021 ISBN 9781646021512
• C. J. Gadd. History and monuments of Ur, Chatto & Windus, 1929 (Dutton 1980 reprint: ISBN 0-405-08545-i).
• P. R. S. Morrey. "Where Did They Bury the Kings of the IIIrd Dynasty of Ur?", Iraq, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 1–eighteen, 1984.
• P.R.Southward. Morrey. "What Exercise Nosotros Know About the People Buried in the Regal Cemetery?", Trek Magazine, Penn Museum, vol. 20, iss. i, pp. 24–40, 1977
• J. Oates, "Ur and Eridu: The Prehistory", Iraq, vol. 22, pp. 32–l, 1960.
• Pardo Mata, Pilar, "Ur, ciudad de los sumerios". Cuenca: Alderaban, 2006. ISBN 978-84-95414-38-0.
• Susan Pollock, "Chronology of the Royal Cemetery of Ur", Iraq, vol. 47, pp. 129–158, British Institute for the Study of Republic of iraq, 1985
• Susan Pollock, "Of Priestesses, Princes and Poor Relations: The Expressionless in the Imperial Cemetery of Ur", Cambridge Archaeological Journal, vol. one, iss. 2, 1991
• Licia Romano and Franco D'Agostino, "Abu Tbeirah Excavations I. Area 1: Last Phase and Building A – Phase i", Sapienza Università Editrice, Jun 7, 2019, ISBN 9788893771085
• [two] Leon Legrain, "Ur Excavations Iii: Archaic seal-impressions", Publications of the Articulation Trek of the British Museum and of the Academy Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, to Mesopotamia : Ur excavations, Oxford University Press, 1936
• [3]Woolley, Leonard, "Ur Excavations II. The Royal Cemetery", Plates, Publications of the Joint Expedition of the British Museum and of the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, to Mesopotamia : Ur excavations, Oxford University Press, 1927
  • Ur excavations IV: The Early on Periods, Oxford Academy Press, 1927.
  • Ur Excavations Five: The Ziggurat and Its Surround, Oxford University Printing, 1927.
  • with K.Eastward.L. Mallowan (ed. T. C. Mitchell): Ur Excavations VII: The Old Babylonian Menstruation, Oxford University Printing, 1927
  • (ed. T. C. Mitchell), Ur Excavations VIII: The Kassite Period, Oxford University Printing, 1927
  • with M.East.L. Mallowan (ed. T. C. Mitchell),: Ur Excavations 9: The Neo-Babylonian and Persian Periods, Oxford University Press, 1927
  • Ur of the Chaldees: A record of seven years of excavation. Ernest Benn Limited, 1920.

External links [edit]

Wikimedia Eatables has media related to Ur.

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• Urban center of the Moon New Excavations at Ur - Penn Museum - 2017
• An exploration of the Royal Tombs of Ur, with a comprehensive selection of high-resolution photographs detailing the treasures establish in the tombs
• Explore some of the Royal Tombs, Mesopotamia website from the British Museum
• Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur
• British Museum and Penn Museum Ur site – has field reports
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Ur
• Woolley's Ur Revisited, Richard 50. Zettler, BAR 10:05, September/Oct 1984.
• Ur Excavations of the University of Pennsylvania Museum
• At Ur, Ritual Deaths That Were Annihilation but Serene on The New York Times
• Web site for new Iraqi/Italian dig

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur

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